Navigating the global egg shortage: a comprehensive study of interconnected challenges (2024)

ABSTRACT

Poultry eggs are a critical source of protein, vitamins, and minerals for people worldwide; facing the current global egg shortage is a significant concern. The shortage results from various factors, including avian flu outbreaks, changes in consumer demand, and supply chain disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The economic crisis caused by the pandemic has also impacted the availability and affordability of eggs, particularly in low-income countries. The global egg shortage has implications for public health, particularly for vulnerable populations who rely on eggs for essential nutrients. One Health, an approach that recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, provides a useful framework for understanding and addressing the egg shortage. One Health approach to the egg shortage involves collaboration between agriculture and environmental sectors to address the root causes of the lack and ensure the sustainable production and distribution of eggs. Addressing the global egg shortage requires a multifaceted approach considering the complex social, economic, and environmental factors. One Health perspective offers a way to understand and address the interconnected factors contributing to the shortage to ensure access to affordable, nutritious eggs for all in a healthy way.

INTRODUCTION

Poultry eggs and meat are the most abundant and primary animal protein sources in the human diet. The egg is regarded as a low-cost, entirely healthy food and a nutritional powerhouse. Both egg whites and yolk are high in protein. It accounts for around 12.6% of an egg’s consumable portion. A, B, E, and K vitamins are also present in eggs. Additionally, eggs include significant amounts of selenium, an antioxidant essential for thyroid, immunological, and mental health as well as zinc, iron, vitamin D, B6 and B12 (Wang et al., 2017). The poultry industry is expanding and becoming more industrialized in many world regions. Growth has been driven by an expanding population, increased purchasing power, and urbanization (View of Major Problems and Challenges of Egg Production and Marketing in Bangladesh, n.d.).

Throughout the previous two decades, the worldwide chicken and egg trade has increased, and poultry meat and egg remain the most traded animal protein(AGRIS, n.d.). In the poultry sector, egg production is being impeded by a major global scarcity. The cost of eggs and egg products is growing due to Influenza, lack of supply, an increase in the cost of fuel, feed, and packing, and the manufacturing cost, which are the main factors which lead to running short of eggs in several countries(Egg Shortages and Price Increases Caused in Part by Bird Flu Outbreak - The New York Times, n.d.). The increased cost of eggs results in a price increases for food and confectionery products including eggs as a part of the product. Buyers will face additional challenges as food prices rise. Since October 2021, about 21 million poultry cases have been reported to the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH, formerly known as the OIE) in various parts of the world(Egg Prices on the Rise: The Effects of Animal Diseases – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health, n.d.). Although avian flu is not a new threat, wild birds don’t typically get sick from the virus, but the current circulating strain seems more virulent(Blagodatski et al., 2021). Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) or “bird flu” is the chief culprit; it can spread swiftly from flock to flock and is fatal in hens. A global pandemic of HPAI viruses of the H5 and H7 subtypes is a worldwide public health problems (Li et al., 2014) and a significant economic loss in the chicken sector(Otte et al., 2008). The avian flu outbreak is the worst in the history of the United States, United Kingdom (UK), and Europe the and also 27 European countries (EU). For the first time, it has across the Atlantic, reaching Canada and the United States (USA), according to the Global food consumer form(Worldwide Egg Shortage Due to Several Reasons Raises Prices in Global Supermarkets - Global Food Consumers Forum, n.d.).

The price and shortage of eggs can have a significant impact on a nation’s economy, particularly in countries where eggs are a staple food and a significant source of protein for the population(Henchion et al., 2017). As egg availability declines and costs rise, households that depend on eggs as a primary protein source may find it difficult to purchase enough to meet their nutritional needs. The shortage may severely impact poultry farmers, forcing them to slaughter birds or reduce production. This could result in lower income for poultry producers and, as a result, more economic hardship for their families. Therefore the ongoing crisis in the global egg supply can also be regarded as “eggflation”.

The general concept of One Health (OH) is widely accepted(). OH underscores the need for a holistic and interdisciplinary approach to address the interconnected challenges of influenza outbreaks and the global egg shortage. The transmission of Influenza viruses between different species, such as birds, pigs, and humans, highlights the interconnectedness of One Health(Debnath et al., 2021). For example, certain strains of Influenza can originate in animals and then jump to humans, leading to outbreaks or pandemics. OH approach can help to address these issues by identifying and addressing the underlying factors that contribute to egg shortages or price increases, such as disease outbreaks in poultry farms or disruptions in the supply chain.

Despite the poultry sector, especially eggs being an integral part of the economy; regrettably, the price increase and scarcity have reduced consumer egg consumption. This study aims to highlight the scarcity of eggs the world is facing now with the OH perspective and economic crisis, which will enable us to explore the potentialities of this sub-sector.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

The global egg shortage has emerged as a critical concern with far-reaching implications, and it is crucial to understand the factors driving this crisis in egg availability. Our study aims to shed light on the current global egg shortage, examining it through the lenses of the OH perspective and the economic crises unfolding in different countries. Nonetheless, several factors, such as avian influenza outbreaks, legislation promoting cage-free egg production, fluctuations in supply and demand, and complications in the supply chain, have all played a role in the current egg availability crisis.

One significant factor contributing to this shortage is the devastating impact of avian influenza, particularly the highly pathogenic strains (HPAI), on poultry farms worldwide. After introducing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), seasonal influenza virus circulation declined dramatically in 2020-21 but increased in 2021-22. This virus has caused the culling of millions of birds, leading to a sharp decline in egg production and subsequently driving up prices due to unrelenting demand (Uyeki et al., 2022).

Furthermore, the shift towards cage-free housing systems has gained momentum, especially in the USA, as it is believed to offer improved living conditions for hens (Lin et al., 2017). By the end of 2019, approximately 80% of table egg-laying chickens were raised in cage systems, commonly known as conventional production. The remaining 20% were produced as specialty eggs, with cage-free eggs being the most prevalent category among them. (Egg Industry Center, 2019). The significant advancement in cage-free production is due to (1) recent regulation compelling farmers to transition from traditional to cage-free production and (2) pledges by huge egg buyers such as McDonald’s, Walmart, Starbucks, and more than 200 restaurants and supermarkets to utilize cage-free products alone by 2025. (Markets Insider 2017). If the commitments made by the participants are kept, around 75% of the laying eggs flock must be cage-free by 2025. Most consumers are only willing to pay an extra $0.30 per dozen for cage-free eggs. Still, the average premium is $1.16 per dozen, demonstrating that only a small fraction of buyers are prepared to pay big profits for the cage-free label, and the market share for cage-free eggs can expand above its current level even at prices as high as $1.00 per dozen. (Lusk, 2019). This transition, driven in part by animal welfare legislation and commitments from major egg buyers, has disrupted the traditional supply chain, with implications for egg prices. The challenge lies in consumers’ willingness to pay a premium for cage-free eggs, which has a ripple effect on the price of conventional eggs.

The delicate balance between supply and demand is another critical element in the egg availability equation. As the world’s population grows, so does the demand for eggs and other protein sources, resulting in the need for increased production. However, the gap between supply and demand has widened, leading to shortages in some regions. To meet their needs, several countries are now importing eggs from others, creating a complex global egg trade network. In India, for example, there is an egg scarcity in Maharashtra; thus, the other states it is importing eggs from Karnataka, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu. Similarly, on March 10, 2023, Taiwan began importing eggs from eight countries, including the USA, Australia, Japan, Brazil, Turkey, Thailand, the Philippines, and Malaysia. Furthermore, according to the Observatory of economic complexity (OCE), the UK is also importing eggs from The USA (£506k or 27.9%), Spain (£84.4k or 48.1%), and Poland (£33.3k or 20.1%) (in November 2022)(Eggs in United Kingdom | OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity, n.d.), and Japan is also importing eggs from Hong Kong (484 million), Singapore (14.5 million), Taiwan (4.75 million), and the USA (251,000), and were primarily imported from China (19 million), Taiwan (13.8 million), Germany (4.32 million), and the USA (1.58 million)(Eggs in Japan | OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity, n.d.). In addition, in 2020, many countries experienced egg shortages due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which disrupted supply chains and led to changes in consumer demand. At the beginning of the pandemic, panic buying led to a surge in egg demand, causing shortages in some areas. However, as lockdowns and economic disruptions continued, demand for eggs declined, leading to oversupply in some regions and reduced production in others.

Supply chain disruptions have further exacerbated the egg crisis. Complex supply chain structures and shortages of essential supplies and transportation have made it challenging for national egg producers to meet the growing demand, leading to price hikes and supply shortages. Chicken mortality rates have added to this supply/demand conflict, leaving consumers facing higher prices and, at times, empty shelves.

In essence, the production of eggs involves a highly intricate supply chain that extends beyond just birds, feed, water, and land. The pandemic, with its impact on labor, construction costs, and the severe outbreak of HPAI, has exposed unresolved supply chain issues in the egg sector. Rising costs and the recent surge in avian influenza have further aggravated the egg shortage, leaving us with a complex and multifaceted problem that necessitates comprehensive analysis and innovative solutions.

CONCLUSIONS

The shortage and price increase of eggs can have a cascading effect on the economy, affecting multiple sectors. It can be particularly devastating for low-income sections of the population who rely on eggs as a primary source of nutrition. To address egg shortages, governments may take actions such as importing eggs from other countries, providing subsidies to farmers, or implementing policies to encourage increased production. Additionally, consumers may reduce their egg consumption or switch to alternative protein sources during a shortage. The egg scarcity has demonstrated to egg growers and food sector manufacturers that there is still much opportunity for development and an overall requirement for domesticated and localized supply chain fulfilment techniques. Importing eggs is not a solution for this type of shortage; every country should employ some measures to control influenza as it directly linked with poultry, egg and humans.

Data Availability

NA

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

All authors contributed to writing-original draft preparation, review and editing.

FUNDING

This research was funded by VtR Inc-CGU (SCRPD1L0221); DOXABIO-CGU (SCRPD1K0131), and CGU grant (UZRPD1L0011, UZRPD1M0081).

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD STATEMENT

Not applicable

INFORMED CONSENT STATEMENT

Not applicable

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest.

Graphical Abstract

REFERENCES

1. Adlhoch, C., Fusaro, A., Gonzales, J. L., Kuiken, T., Marangon, S., Niqueux, É., Staubach, C., Terregino, C., Aznar, I., Guajardo, I. M., & Baldinelli, F. (2022). Avian influenza overview March – June 2022. EFSA Journal, 20(8). doi:10.2903/J.EFSA.2022.7415

   OpenUrlCrossRef

2. Adlhoch, C., Fusaro, A., Gonzales, J. L., Kuiken, T., Marangon, S., Niqueux, É., Staubach, C., Terregino, C., Guajardo, I. M., Chuzhakina, K., & Baldinelli, F. (2022). Avian influenza overview June – September 2022. EFSA Journal, 20(10). doi:10.2903/J.EFSA.2022.7597

   OpenUrlCrossRef

3. AGRIS. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/index.do

4. ↵

   Agüero, M., Monne, I., Sánchez, A., Zecchin, B., Fusaro, A., Ruano, M. J., Del Valle Arrojo, M., Fernández-Antonio, R., Souto, A. M., Tordable, P., Cañás, J., Bonfante, F., Giussani, E., Terregino, C., & Orejas, J. J. (2023). Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in farmed minks, Spain, October 2022. Euro Surveillance : Bulletin Europeen Sur Les Maladies Transmissibles = European Communicable Disease Bulletin, 28(3). doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2023.28.3.2300001

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed

5. Australia - Eggs - price, March 2023 | GlobalProductPrices.com. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.globalproductprices.com/Australia/egg_prices/

6. Avian Influenza – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.woah.org/en/disease/avian-influenza/#ui-id-2

7. Avian Influenza Control Programme in Indonesia. Annual Report 2008. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr/c/ec93e780-2529-4ea9-af88-a0fa5dd2f33f/

8. ↵

   Baek, Y. G., Lee, Y. N., Lee, D. H., Shin, J. I., Lee, J. H., Chung, D. H., Lee, E. K., Heo, G. B., Sagong, M., Kye, S. J., Lee, K. N., Lee, M. H., & Lee, Y. J. (2021). Multiple Reassortants of H5N8 Clade 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses Detected in South Korea during the Winter of 2020-2021. Viruses, 13(3). doi:10.3390/V13030490

   OpenUrlCrossRef

9. ↵

   Blagodatski, A., Trutneva, K., Glazova, O., Mityaeva, O., Shevkova, L., Kegeles, E., Onyanov, N., Fede, K., Maznina, A., Khavina, E., Yeo, S. J., Park, H., & Volchkov, P. (2021). Avian influenza in wild birds and poultry: Dissemination pathways, monitoring methods, and virus ecology. Pathogens, 10(5). doi:10.3390/PATHOGENS10050630

   OpenUrlCrossRef

10. Bureau of Labor Statistics Data. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/APU0000708111

11. ↵

    Chien, Y. J. (2013). How Did International Agencies Perceive the Avian Influenza Problem? The Adoption and Manufacture of the ‘One World, One Health’ Framework. Pandemics and Emerging Infectious Diseases: The Sociological Agenda, 46–58. doi:10.1002/9781118553923.CH5

    OpenUrlCrossRef

12. ↵

    Debnath, F., Chakraborty, D., Deb, A., Saha, M., & Dutta, S. (2021). Increased human-animal interface & emerging zoonotic diseases: An enigma requiring multi-sectoral efforts to address. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 153(5&6), 577–584. doi:10.4103/IJMR.IJMR_2971_20

    OpenUrlCrossRef

13. Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=511&bul_id=MW9kdjRHZi9RUDRKeHh5WGQwN3ZkUT09&menu_id=bThzTHQxN1ZqMVF6a2I4RkZoNDFkQT09

14. Egg prices break all-time high, industry blames bulk social aid purchases - Economy - The Jakarta Post. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.thejakartapost.com/business/2022/08/24/egg-prices-break-all-time-high-industry-blames-bulk-social-aid-purchases.html

15. Egg prices continue to climb at slower pace alongside other food consumed at home, CPI reveals. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.feednavigator.com/Article/2023/02/14/egg-prices-continue-to-climb-at-slower-pace-alongside-other-food-consumed-at-home-cpi-reveals

16. Egg prices in Taiwan sizzle to all-time high | Taiwan News | 2023-03-06 12:53:00. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/4827709

17. Egg prices in Taiwan to rise again as shortage continues - Focus Taiwan. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://focustaiwan.tw/business/202303050013

18. Egg prices on the rise: the effects of animal diseases – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.woah.org/en/article/egg-prices-on-the-rise-the-effects-of-animal-diseases/

19. Egg prices on the rise as 15 million birds culled amid avian flu scare | The Asahi Shimbun: Breaking News, Japan News and Analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14852803

20. Egg producers continue to quit on weekly basis, sector warns - FarmingUK News. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.farminguk.com/news/egg-producers-continue-to-quit-on-weekly-basis-sector-warns_61952.html

21. Egg shortage calls for cooperation - Taipei Times. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2023/03/06/2003795551

22. Egg Shortages and Price Increases Caused in Part by Bird Flu Outbreak - The New York Times. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/12/us/egg-shortage-us.html

23. Eggs. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/farming/animal-products/eggs_en

24. Eggs in Japan | OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/eggs/reporter/jpn

25. Eggs in United Kingdom | OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/eggs/reporter/gbr

26. European Influenza Surveillance Network (EISN). (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/about-us/partnerships-and-networks/disease-and-laboratory-networks/eisn

27. Expatriate Division, Taipei Economic and Trade Office, Jakarta, Indonesia – News. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.ocac.gov.tw/OCAC/SubSites/Pages/Detail.aspx?site=bf7c679c-ac68-4740-84d2-4bc1f4735f8b&nodeid=1743&pid=51654996

28. Explained: After US and UK, why Japan is now facing egg shortage. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/explained-after-us-and-uk-why-japan-is-now-facing-egg-shortage-12266472.html

29. Geneva, & Switzerland. (n.d.). Report of the second WHO Consultation on the Global Action Plan for Influenza Vaccines (GAP) P G A.

30. Global Influenza Strategy 2019–2030. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241515320

31. ↵

    Henchion, M., Hayes, M., Mullen, A. M., Fenelon, M., & Tiwari, B. (2017). Future Protein Supply and Demand: Strategies and Factors Influencing a Sustainable Equilibrium. Foods 2017, Vol. 6, Page 53, 6(7), 53. doi:10.3390/FOODS6070053

    OpenUrlCrossRef

32. High Egg Prices Are Hitting Japan (and Its Pancakes) - Unseen Japan. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://unseenjapan.com/rising-egg-prices-japan-pancakes/

33. Historical statistic notices on UK egg production and prices, 2022 - GOV.UK. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/historical-statistic-notices-on-uk-egg-production-and-prices-2022

34. In the EU’s inflation crisis, the humble egg takes the cake - The Economic Times. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/in-the-eus-inflation-crisis-the-humble-egg-takes-the-cake/articleshow/98545894.cms?from=mdr

35. ↵

    Li, X., Zhang, Z., Yu, A., Ho, S. Y. W., Carr, M. J., Zheng, W., Zhang, Y., Zhu, C., Lei, F., & Shi, W. (2014). Global and local persistence of influenza A(H5N1) Virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(8), 1287–1295. doi:10.3201/EID2008.130910

    OpenUrlCrossRef

36. ↵

    Lin, X., Zhang, R., Jiang, S., El-Mashad, H., & Xin, H. (2017). Emissions of ammonia, carbon dioxide and particulate matter from cage-free layer houses in California. Atmospheric Environment, 152, 246–255. doi:10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2016.12.018

    OpenUrlCrossRef

37. Ludwig, S., Zell, R., Schwemmle, M., & Herold, S. (2014). Influenza, a One Health paradigm- Novel therapeutic strategies to fight a zoonotic pathogen with pandemic potential. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, 304(7), 894–901. doi:10.1016/J.IJMM.2014.08.016

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed

38. ↵

    Lusk, J. L. (2019). Consumer preferences for cage-free eggs and impacts of retailer pledges. Agribusiness, 35(2), 129–148. doi:10.1002/AGR.21580

    OpenUrlCrossRef

39. ↵

    Mackenzie, J. S., & Jeggo, M. (2019). The One Health Approach—Why Is It So Important? Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 2019, Vol. 4, Page 88, 4(2), 88. doi:10.3390/TROPICALMED4020088

    OpenUrlCrossRef

40. OIE, FAO and WHO enlarge their collaboration commitment to face health challenges – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.woah.org/en/oie-fao-and-who-enlarge-their-collaboration-commitment-to-face-health-challenges/

41. ↵

    Otte, J., Hinrichs, J., Rushton, J., Roland-Holst, D., & Zilberman, D. (2008). Impacts of avian influenza virus on animal production in developing countries. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, 3. doi:10.1079/PAVSNNR20083080

    OpenUrlCrossRef

42. ↵

    Peyrot, B. M., Abolnik, C., Anthony, T., & Roberts, L. C. (2022). Evolutionary dynamics of the clade 2.3.4.4B H5N8 high-pathogenicity avian influenza outbreaks in coastal seabirds and other species in southern Africa from 2017 to 2019. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69(6), 3749–3760. doi:10.1111/tbed.14744

    OpenUrlCrossRef

43. ↵

    Poen, M. J., Venkatesh, D., Bestebroer, T. M., Vuong, O., Scheuer, R. D., Oude Munnink, B. B., de Meulder, D., Richard, M., Kuiken, T., Koopmans, M. P. G., Kelder, L., Kim, Y. J., Lee, Y. J., Steensels, M., Lambrecht, B., Dan, A., Pohlmann, A., Beer, M., Savic, V., … Lewis, N. S. (2019). Co-circulation of genetically distinct highly pathogenic avian influenza A clade 2.3.4.4 (H5N6) viruses in wild waterfowl and poultry in Europe and East Asia, 2017-18. Virus Evolution, 5(1), vez004–vez004. doi:10.1093/VE/VEZ004

    OpenUrlCrossRef

44. ↵

    Prata, J. C., Rocha-Santos, T., & Ribeiro, A. I. (2022). An introduction to the concept of One Health. One Health: Integrated Approach to 21st Century Challenges to Health, 1–31. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-822794-7.00004-6

    OpenUrlCrossRef

45. Revised Action Plan 2021 for Avian Influenza | Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://dahd.nic.in/circulars/revised-action-plan-2021-avian-influenza

46. Search Results for – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.woah.org/en/?s=&_search=Japan

47. ↵

    Sharifi, H., & Karamouzian, M. (2014). Introducing. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 2(2), 101–102. doi:10.15171/IJHPM.2014.24

    OpenUrlCrossRef

48. ↵

    Sidik, S. M. (2022). Why is bird flu so bad right now? Nature. doi:10.1038/D41586-022-03322-2

    OpenUrlCrossRef

49. State Facing Shortage Of Eggs: Official | Aurangabad News - Times of India. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/state-facing-shortage-of-eggs-official/articleshow/97077703.cms

50. This Indian state is facing shortage of 1 crore eggs per day | Mint. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.livemint.com/news/india/maharashtra-is-facing-shortage-of-1-crore-eggs-per-day-11674013638100.html

51. Topic: Indonesia | The Star. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.thestar.com.my/tag/indonesia

52. USDA APHIS | 2022-2023 Detections of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. (n.d.).

53. ↵

    Uyeki, T. M., Hui, D. S., Zambon, M., Wentworth, D. E., & Monto, A. S. (2022). Influenza. The Lancet, 400(10353), 693–706. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00982-5/ATTACHMENT/295E53E4-3E07-4EB6-A07F-8CFDA0EC3780/MMC1.PDF

    OpenUrlCrossRef

54. ↵

    Verhagen, J. H., Fouchier, R. A. M., & Lewis, N. (2021). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses at the Wild-Domestic Bird Interface in Europe: Future Directions for Research and Surveillance. Viruses, 13(2). doi:10.3390/V13020212

    OpenUrlCrossRef

55. View of Major Problems and Challenges of Egg Production and Marketing in Bangladesh. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2023, from https://journal.safebd.org/index.php/jafe/article/view/12/10

56. ↵

    Wang, J., Yue, H., Wu, S., Zhang, H., & Qi, G. (2017). Nutritional modulation of health, egg quality and environmental pollution of the layers. Animal Nutrition, 3(2), 91–96. doi:10.1016/J.ANINU.2017.03.001

    OpenUrlCrossRef

57. WHO EMRO | Influenza surveillance | Influenza | Health topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.emro.who.int/health-topics/influenza/influenza-surveillance.html

58. Why Are Eggs So Expensive RN? (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.delish.com/uk/food-news/a42952571/why-are-eggs-so-expensive/

59. WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.woah.org/en/home/

60. Worldwide egg shortage due to several reasons raises prices in global supermarkets - Global Food Consumers Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.globalfoodconsumers.org/news/global-egg-scarcity/

61. Yang, J. R., Teng, H. J., Liu, M. T., & Li, S. Y. (2017). Taiwan’s Public Health National Laboratory System: Success in Influenza Diagnosis and Surveillance. Health Security, 15(2), 154–164. doi:10.1089/HS.2016.0104

    OpenUrlCrossRef